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The demonstration of behavioral differences was used to suggest vested interest's moderating influence on attitudebehavior consistency. Demographic variables were not associated with vested interest effects in Study 1 and thus were not included in the second study. Contrast prosocial and egotistical behavior. The influence of vested interest on attitudebehavior consistency was demonstrated in Sivacek and Crano's (Citation1982) study, in which participants were categorized objectively into vested and nonvested groups based on age, which reflected the extent to which they would be affected by a referendum to change the legal drinking age from 18 to 21 years. Being selfish pays while altruism does not, so then why has altruistic/prosocial behavior evolved? It is the idea that we utilize a minimax strategy whereby we seek to maximize our rewards all while minimizing our cost. This expansion was prompted by research on interpersonal relationships indicating that as interpersonal closeness increases, so too does inclusion-of-the-other-in-the-self. As Ashton et al. Explain how evolutionary psychology might approach the development of helping behavior. This of course could make us feel good about ourselves. Next up are situational reasons to include the bystander effect, the decision-making process related to helping, and social norms. In both studies inclusion of indirectly vested participants (i.e., persons having no direct vested interest, but associated with a close other who did) increased the moderating effect of vested interest on attitudebehavior consistency. Consider this. Three broad theoretical approaches seek to explain the origins of helping behavior: natural explanations (including evolutionary and genetic explanations), cultural approaches (including sociocultural and social learning explanations), and psychological or individual-level explanations. To ensure that these results were not issue-specific, and to specify the construct more precisely, a second study was conducted with a different sample, different attitude object, and different measures. Consider the idea of the reciprocity norm (Gouldner, 1960) which states that we are more likely to survive if we enter into an understanding with our neighbor to help in times of need.